List of Contributors xx
Preface xxiii
Acknowledgments xxiv
1 Integration of Nutrition into Clinical Practice 1
Sean J. Delaney, Andrea J. Fascetti, Jennifer A. Larsen, and Paul Brentson
Introduction 1
Average Revenue from Food Sales and the Potential 1
Strategies to Increase Product Sales 2
Recommending an Effective Therapeutic Food 2
Establishing Expectations 2
Performing a Nutritional Assessment 3
Monitoring Patient Response 3
Providing a Variety of Options 3
Recommending Therapeutic Treats 4
Recommending Nutraceuticals and Dietary Supplements 4
Creating or Increasing Revenue from Nutritional Advice 4
Nutritional Advice for Healthy Patients 5
Nutritional Advice for Unhealthy Patients 7
References 7
2 Basic Nutrition Overview 8
Sean J. Delaney and Andrea J. Fascetti
Energy 8
Energy Requirements 9
Essential Nutrients 9
Protein and Amino Acids 10
Fat 12
Carbohydrates 13
Minerals 13
Macrominerals 13
Trace Minerals (Microminerals) 14
Vitamins 14
Water Soluble 14
Fat Soluble 14
Storage Pools for Essential Nutrients 15
Essential Nutrient Deficiency Signs and Clinically Available or Relevant Methods of Assessing Nutrient Status 15
Protein 16
Amino Acids 16
Arginine 16
Histidine 16
Isoleucine 16
Leucine 16
Lysine 16
Methionine (Spared by Cystine) 16
Phenylalanine (Spared by Tyrosine) 17
Threonine 17
Tryptophan 17
Valine 17
Taurine 17
Fat 17
Linoleic Acid 17
Arachidonic Acid (Cat, Not Dog) 18
Minerals 18
Macrominerals (Typically Required at 100 mg/Mcal) 18
Calcium 18
Phosphorus 18
Magnesium 18
Sodium 18
Potassium 18
Chloride 19
Microminerals (Typically Required at <100 mg/Mcal) 19
Iron 19
Copper 19
Zinc 19
Manganese 19
Selenium 19
Iodine 19
Vitamins 20
Fat-Soluble Vitamins 20
Vitamin A 20
Vitamin d 20
Vitamin E 20
Vitamin K 20
Water-Soluble Vitamins 20
Thiamin, Vitamin B 1 20
Riboflavin, Vitamin B 2 21
Pyridoxine, Vitamin B 6 21
Niacin, Vitamin B 3 21
Pantothenic Acid, Vitamin B 5 21
Cobalamin, Vitamin B 12 21
Folic Acid, Vitamin B 9 22
Biotin, Vitamin H or B 7 22
Choline 22
Diagnostic and Food Analysis Laboratories and Diet Computer Analysis 25
Nutrient Requirements 25
Key Clinical Nutritional Excesses and Signs 26
Additional Education on Nutrition 27
References 27
3 Determining Energy Requirements 29
Jon J. Ramsey
Units 29
Basic Concepts and Terminology 30
Diet Records or History 32
Calculating the Energy Content of a Diet 33
Practical Equations for Predicting the Metabolizable Energy Content of Dog and Cat Foods 37
Calculating Energy Requirement from Body Weight 39
Methods of Determining Energy Expenditure and Energy Requirements 39
Methods of Calculating Energy Expenditure and Energy Requirements 42
Energy Requirements for Maintenance 42
Example Calculation 47
Example Calculation 48
Example Calculation 48
Energy Requirements for Growth 48
Example Calculation 50
Energy Requirements for Pregnancy and Lactation 51
Example Calculation 52
Calculating Energy Requirements in States of Disease 53
Summary 55
References 56
4 Nutritional and Energy Requirements for Performance 58
Richard C. Hill
How Much Should Exercising Dogs Be Fed? 58
Energy Requirements for Performance and Work 59
Types of Exercise and Nutrient Requirements 62
The Importance of Training 64
Nutritional Recommendations for Dogs Undertaking Different Types of Exercise 64
Long-Distance Submaximal Aerobic Exercise 65
Short-Distance Supramaximal Anaerobic Exercise 66
Fluid and Electrolyte Requirements, Hydration, and “Sports Drinks” 67
Antioxidants 68
Other Vitamins, Trace Minerals, and Other Essential Nutrients 68
Other Nutritional Supplements 68
Time of Feeding 69
Summary 69
References 69
5 Pet Food and Supplement Regulations: Practical Implications 72
David A. Dzanis and Isabel Marzo
US Regulation 72
US Regulation of Pet Foods and Supplements 72
Definitions, Abbreviations, and Acronyms 72
US Regulatory Oversight 73
General Labeling Requirements 74
Labeling Claims 77
Descriptive Terms 77
Supplements 78
Therapeutic Pet Foods 79
Dog Chews 83
Summary 83
European Union Regulation 83
Definitions, Abbreviations, and Acronyms 84
General Pet Food Regulations 85
Complementary Pet Food: Composition, Uses, and Labeling 86
Feed Additives 87
Claims 87
Labeling 87
Dietetic Pet Food 90
Practical Implications 95
Summary 96
References 96
6 Using Pet Food Labels and Product Guides 98
Sean J. Delaney and Andrea J. Fascetti
“Reading” a Pet Food Label 98
Overview of Regulatory Oversight 98
Principal Display Panel or Front Display Panel 98
Product Name 99
Back Panel 99
Nutritional Adequacy 100
Ingredient Declaration 100
Nutrient Concentrations or Guaranteed Analysis 101
Company’s Contact Information 101
Feeding Directions or Guidelines 101
Calorie Content 101
Caloric Distribution Calculation 102
Using Product Brochures and Guides 103
Converting Nutrient Concentrations to a Dry Matter Basis 103
Converting Nutrient Concentrations to an Energy Basis 104
Converting to Other Units 104
Product Guide Recommendations for Conditions and Diseases 104
Summary 105
Recommended Resources 105
7 Feeding the Healthy Dog and Cat 106
Andrea J. Fascetti and Sean J. Delaney
Feeding the Healthy Dog and Cat 108
How Much to Feed 108
When and How to Feed 112
Free-Choice (Ad Libitum, Self-Feeding) 112
Time-Restricted Meal Feeding 113
Portion-Controlled Feeding 113
Snacks and Treats 113
Jerky Treats and Fanconi Syndrome in Dogs 115
What to Feed 116
Feeding Guidelines for Different Life Stages 117
Gestation and Lactation 117
Cats 117
Dogs 118
Supplementation during Gestation and Lactation 119
Assessment 119
Growth 119
Orphan Kittens and Puppies 119
Assessment 120
Weaning to Adult 120
Kittens 120
Puppies 120
Neutering and the Prevention of Weight Gain in Kittens and Puppies 121
Assessment 122
Adult Cats and Dogs 122
Assessment 122
Senior Dogs and Cats 122
Physiological Changes Associated with Aging 123
Nutrient Requirements of Older Pets 126
Feeding Recommendations for Mature Dogs and Cats 128
Summary 129
References 129
8 Commercial and Home-Prepared Diets 136
Andrea J. Fascetti and Sean J. Delaney
Introduction 136
Commercial Diets 136
Types of Pet Foods 136
Dry Food 136
Moist Foods 137
Semi-Moist Foods 137
Raw 138
Terminology 138
Market Segments 140
Commercial Dog and Cat Diet Formulation and Considerations 140
Ingredient Database Population 140
Ingredient Safety and Legality First 140
Ingredient Regulatory Considerations 141
Ingredient Availability and Cost 141
Establishing Reliable Nutrient Profiles for Ingredients 142
Ingredient Procurement 143
Sustainability 143
Consistency 143
Ingredient Declaration 144
Formulation Software 144
Options 144
Limitations 145
Equipment 145
Extruder 145
Canning/Retorting Line 146
Availability of Pilot Plant or Line 146
Guaranteed Analysis Target 146
Ingredient Declaration Order 147
Functionality 147
Shelf Life 147
Palatability 148
Least Cost 148
Stool Quality and Digestibility 149
Labeling 149
Continuous Improvement 149
Home-Prepared Diets 150
Nutritional Adequacy 150
Managing Patients Using Home-Prepared Diets 154
Protein and Amino Acids 154
Fatty Acids 155
Carbohydrates 156
Vitamin and Mineral Supplements 156
General Considerations 156
Assessment while on a Home-Prepared Diet 158
Raw Food Feeding 158
Summary 160
References 160
9 Nutritional Management of Body Weight 163
Kathryn E. Michel and Robert C. Backus
The Health Consequences of Overweightness and Obesity 164
Obesity as a Risk Factor for Canine Orthopedic Disease 164
Obesity as a Risk Factor for Feline Diabetes Mellitus 164
Additional Health Risks of Obesity in Dogs and Cats 165
Increasing Awareness of Overweightness and Obesity 165
Targeting Optimal Weight 166
Body Condition Scoring 166
Understanding the Risk Factors for Weight Gain 170
Accurate Accounting of Caloric Intake 171
Formulation of the Weight-Loss Plan 172
Dietary Considerations 173
Exercise 176
Tailoring the Program to the Patient 176
Assessment of the Weight-Loss Plan 177
Safety and Efficacy of Weight-Loss Programs for Companion Animals 177
Adjustment of the Weight-Loss Plan 178
Summary 180
References 180
10 Nutritional Management of Orthopedic Diseases 186
Herman Hazewinkel
Bone Composition and Calciotropic Hormones 186
Chemical Composition of Bone 187
Mineral Composition During Growth 188
Hormonal Regulation of Calcium 189
The Role of Nutrition During Skeletal Growth and Development 192
Energy 192
Calcium, Phosphorus, and Vitamin d 193
Calcium Deficiency 193
Phosphorus Deficiency 198
Vitamin D Deficiency (Rickets or Hypovitaminosis D) 198
Deficiency of Other Trace Minerals 201
Calcium Excess (Alimentary Hypercalcitoninism) 201
Vitamin D Excess 205
Vitamin A Excess 206
Nutrient Requirements for Skeletal Maintenance in Adult Animals 208
Implementation of Nutrition in Clinical Orthopedics 210
Influence of Nutrition in the Occurrence of Orthopedic Diseases 211
Elbow Dysplasias 211
Role of Nutrition in Elbow Dysplasias 212
Hip Dysplasia 213
Nutritional Influences Seen in Hip Dysplasia 214
Hypertrophic Osteodystrophy (or Metaphyseal Osteopathy) in Dogs 216
Prevention of Nutritionally Related Orthopedic Diseases 217
Diets to Support Treatment of Patients with Osteoarthrosis 218
Causative Role of Nutrition 219
Therapeutic Role of Nutrition 220
Osteoarthrosis in Cats 225
Summary 226
References 226
11 Nutritional Management of Gastrointestinal Diseases 235
Nick Cave, Sean J. Delaney, and Jennifer A. Larsen
Key Dietary Variables 235
Protein 235
Glutamine 236
Fat 236
Fiber and Prebiosis 237
Fiber Viscosity 239
Fiber as a Luminal Adsorbent 239
Fiber Fermentability 240
Effects of Short-Chain Volatile Fatty Acids on the Colon 240
Effects of Butyrate on Intestinal Immunity 241
Effect of Fiber on Intestinal Flora: Prebiosis 241
Choice of Fiber 242
Immune Response to Dietary Antigens (Oral Tolerance) 243
Immunologic Basis for Oral Tolerance 243
Loss of Tolerance to Dietary Antigens 244
Food Immunogenicity 245
Acute Gastrointestinal Disease 246
Withholding Food for Acute Non-specific Gastroenteritis 246
Provides Bowel Rest 247
Reduces the Risk of Vomiting 247
Decreases Bacterial Proliferation 248
Decreases Osmotic Diarrhea 248
Decreases Presence of Food Antigens 248
Benefits of Luminal Nutrition in Acute Gastroenteritis 248
Intestinal Recovery and Adaptation 249
Effect of Luminal Nutrients on Inflammation 249
Veterinary Evidence 251
Recommendations 252
Chronic Gastrointestinal Disease 254
Periodontal Disease 254
Periodontitis in Feral and Wild Animals 255
Evidence of the Protective Effect of Chewing Activities 255
Dental Diets 256
The Effect of Gingival Stimulation 257
The Influence of Diet on Saliva and the Flora 258
Recommendations 258
Esophageal Disease 259
Motility Disorders and Megaesophagus 259
Esophagitis 259
Small Intestinal Disease 261
Chronic Intestinal Inflammation and Idiopathic Enteropathy 261
Protein-Losing Enteropathies 270
Adverse Food Reactions and Food-Responsive Enteropathy 270
Short Bowel Syndrome 271
Large Intestinal Disease 273
Colitis 273
Acute Colitis 273
Chronic Colitis 274
Idiopathic Large-Bowel Diarrhea 275
Constipation and Megacolon 276
Intestinal Gas and Flatulence 277
Intestinal Gas Transit and Borborygmus 277
Flatulence 277
Summary 279
References 280
12 Nutritional Management of Exocrine Pancreatic Diseases 299
Cecilia Villaverde and Marta Hervera
Pancreatitis 300
Pathophysiology 301
Nutritional Management 302
Controversies Regarding Nutritional Management 302
When to Start Feeding in Acute Pancreatitis? 302
How Low Is a “Low-Fat” Diet? 303
Does Fat Have to Be Restricted in Canine Acute Pancreatitis? 304
How Important Is Fat Restriction in Feline Pancreatitis? 304
Dietary Management 304
When to Feed 305
Route of Feeding 305
Diet Selection 306
Energy Requirements 307
Long-Term Management 307
Foods to Avoid in Chronic Pancreatitis 308
Exocrine Pancreatic Insufficiency 309
Pathophysiology 309
Nutritional Management 310
Controversies Regarding Nutritional Management 310
Is a Low-Fat Diet Important for Management? 310
Are Medium-Chain Triglycerides Preferred over Long-Chain Triglycerides? 311
Dietary Management 311
Summary 313
References 313
13 Nutritional Management of Hepatobiliary Diseases 319
Stanley L. Marks and Aarti Kathrani
Metabolic Alterations in Liver Failure 319
Carbohydrate Metabolic Alterations 320
Protein and Amino Acid Metabolic Alterations 321
Lipid Metabolic Alterations 322
Vitamin and Mineral Abnormalities 322
Malnutrition in Liver Disease 324
Nutritional Management of Common Hepatobiliary Disorders 324
Feline Idiopathic Hepatic Lipidosis 325
Energy 325
Protein 326
Potassium 327
l-Carnitine 327
Cyanocobalamin/Vitamin B 12 328
Other Nutrient Considerations 328
Copper-Associated Hepatotoxicity in Dogs 328
Energy 329
Dietary Copper Restriction 329
Pharmacologic Reduction of Copper 330
Antioxidants 331
Portosystemic Shunts and Hepatic Encephalopathy 332
Dietary Protein 334
Nonabsorbable Disaccharides 335
Antimicrobials 336
Chronic Hepatitis 336
Summary 337
References 337
14 Nutritional Management of Skin Diseases 345
Catherine A. Outerbridge and Tammy J. Owens
Evaluation of Diet in the Context of Dermatologic Disease 345
Nutritional Deficiencies and Excesses 346
Protein 346
Essential Fatty Acids 348
Zinc 350
Zinc-Responsive Dermatoses 350
Zinc-Unresponsive Lethal Acrodermatitis in White Bull Terriers 353
Copper 354
Vitamin A 354
Vitamin E 355
Vitamin B Complex 356
Vitamin c 358
Generic Dog Food Dermatosis 358
Skin Diseases That Benefit from Nutritional or Dietary Management 359
Cutaneous Adverse Food Reactions 359
Clinical Signs 360
Diagnosis and Treatment 362
Cutaneous Xanthomatosis 366
Superficial Necrolytic Dermatitis 366
Clinical Presentation 369
Diagnosis and Treatment 371
Nutritional Supplementation for Management of Skin Disease 372
Fatty Acid Supplementation 372
Zinc Supplementation for Skin Disease 376
B Vitamin Supplementation 376
Vitamin A–Responsive Skin Diseases 376
Vitamin E–Responsive Skin Diseases 377
Therapeutic Diets for Skin Health 377
Summary 378
References 378
15 Nutritional Management of Kidney Disease 384
Yann Queau and Denise A. Elliott
Chronic Kidney Disease 384
Water 384
Energy 385
Protein 385
Stage I/II: Progression 385
Stage III/IV: Uremia 386
Phosphate 387
Electrolytes 389
Sodium 389
Potassium 390
Acid–Base Balance 391
Long-Chain Omega-3 Fatty Acids 392
Fiber 393
Antioxidants 393
Nutrients That Target the Endothelium 394
Clinical Efficacy 395
Administration 396
Concurrent Diseases 396
Home-Prepared Diets 397
Monitoring 397
Acute Kidney Injury 398
Glomerular Disease 400
Fanconi Syndrome 401
Conclusion 401
Summary 402
References 402
16 Nutritional Management of Lower Urinary Tract Disease 412
Joe Bartges and Ronald J. Corbee
Crystal-Related Lower Urinary Tract Disease 412
Urolithiasis 413
Calcium Oxalate 413
Struvite 420
Purines 423
Cystine 428
Compound Uroliths 429
Surgically and Minimally Invasive Management of Uroliths 430
Matrix-Crystalline Urethral Plugs 430
Idiopathic Cystitis 431
Urinary Tract Infections 432
Summary 433
References 433
17 Nutritional Management of Endocrine Diseases 441
Andrea J. Fascetti and Sean J. Delaney
Diabetes Mellitus 441
Nutritional Factors 441
Water 441
Energy 442
Fiber 442
Fat 444
Protein 444
Digestible Carbohydrates 444
Minerals and Vitamins 446
Food Type 447
Feeding Recommendations and Assessment 447
Hyperlipidemia 448
Classification and Etiology 448
Clinical Signs and Diagnosis 449
Management and Assessment 449
Hypothyroidism and Hyperadrenocorticism in Dogs 451
Dietary Hyperthyroidism in Dogs 452
Feline Hyperthyroidism and Idiopathic Hypercalcemia 453
Hyperthyroidism 453
Feline Idiopathic Hypercalcemia 454
Summary 455
References 455
18 Nutritional Management of Cardiovascular Diseases 461
Lisa M. Freeman and John E. Rush
Feeding the Cat with Cardiac Disease 461
Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy 462
Dilated Cardiomyopathy 465
Hypertension 467
Feeding the Dog with Cardiac Disease 467
Asymptomatic Cardiac Disease (Myxomatous Mitral Valve Disease, Dilated Cardiomyopathy, or Other Cardiac Diseases; American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine [ACVIM] Stage B) 467
Mild to Moderate Congestive Heart Failure (ACVIM Stage C) 468
Cardiac Cachexia 468
n-3 Fatty Acids 471
Sodium 472
Potassium and Magnesium 472
Antioxidants 472
Arginine 473
Advanced Congestive Heart Failure (ACVIM Stage D) 473
Additional Supplements for Dogs with Cardiac Disease 474
Taurine 474
l-Carnitine 475
Coenzyme Q 10 475
Vitamin d 475
Hypertension 476
General Nutritional Issues for Dogs and Cats with Cardiac Disease 476
Summary 477
References 478
19 Nutritional Management of Oncologic Diseases 484
Glenna E. Mauldin
Cancer-Associated Malnutrition 484
Weight Loss and Cachexia in Humans with Cancer 484
Weight Loss and Cachexia in Cats and Dogs with Cancer 486
Obesity in Humans with Cancer 487
Obesity in Cats and Dogs with Cancer 489
Canine Mammary Tumors and Obesity 489
Nutritional Management of Cats and Dogs with Cancer 490
Energy 490
Calorie Sources 492
Protein and Amino Acids 493
Assisted Feeding 495
Other Nutrients for Cats and Dogs with Cancer 497
Omega-3 (n-3) Fatty Acids 497
Vitamin d 498
Antioxidants 500
Nutritional Fads 502
Supplements and Nutraceuticals 502
Feeding Raw Foods to Cats and Dogs with Cancer 503
Summary 503
References 504
20 Enteral Nutrition and Tube Feeding 515
Jennifer A. Larsen
The Case for Enteral Feeding 515
Nutritional Support of Veterinary Patients 515
When to Intervene 516
General Contraindications 518
Enteral Feeding Devices 519
Nasoenteral Feeding Tubes 519
Pharyngostomy Feeding Tubes 520
Esophagostomy Feeding Tubes 520
Gastrostomy Feeding Tubes 522
Jejunal Feeding Tubes 523
Beginning Enteral Feeding 525
Diet Choices 526
Immunomodulating Nutrients 527
Glutamine 529
Arginine 530
Other Nutrients 530
Calculation of Energy Requirements 531
Complications 531
Mechanical Complications 532
Metabolic Complications 534
Gastrointestinal Complications 535
Transitioning Patients to Voluntary Intake 537
Summary 537
References 537
21 Parenteral Nutrition 546
Sally C. Perea
History 546
Assessment of Nutritional Status and Patient Selection 547
Nomenclature 551
Determination of Administration Route 551
Catheter Selection and Placement 552
Parenteral Nutrition Components 553
Protein 553
Fat 555
Carbohydrate 556
Electrolytes and Trace Minerals 557
Vitamins 558
Energy Requirements 559
Formulation Calculations 560
Compounding 561
Initiating Parenteral Nutrition 562
Monitoring Guidelines 563
Complications 563
Metabolic Complications 563
Mechanical Complications 566
Septic Complications 567
Discontinuing ParenteralNutrition 568
Summary 568
References 569
22 Abridged Clinical Nutrition Topics for Companion Avian Species 574
Elizabeth Koutsos and Brian Speer
Water 574
Clinical and Welfare Considerations Associated with Water 575
Energy 575
Sources of Energy 576
Clinical Issues Associated with Energy Imbalance: Obesity 576
Food-Based Enrichment 577
Amino Acids and Protein 578
Clinical Issues with Protein/Amino Acids 578
Essential Fatty Acids and Lipids 579
Clinical Issues Associated with Lipid Nutrition: Atherosclerosis 579
Vitamins 581
Clinical Issues Associated with Vitamin Nutrition 581
Minerals 582
Clinical Issues Associated with Mineral Nutrition 582
Other Clinical Nutrition Issues 583
Nutrition and Feather-Damaging Behaviors 583
Appropriate Diets for Birds and Their Role in Animal Well-Being 584
Conclusions 585
References 585
23 Nutrition for Small Mammalian Companion Herbivores and Carnivores 590
Jonathan Stockman and Olivia A. Petritz
General Nutrition for Small Mammalian Companion Herbivores 590
Lagomorphs (Rabbits) and Caviomorphs (Chinchillas and Guinea Pigs) 590
Gastrointestinal Physiology and Anatomic Features 591
Rabbit, Chinchilla, and Guinea Pig Normal Diet 592
Protein 592
Carbohydrate and Fiber 593
Hay and Other Plant Considerations 594
Fat 595
Vitamins and Minerals 595
Water 596
General Warning about Energy-Dense Foods and Treats 596
Nutrition-Related Diseases of Small Mammalian Companion Herbivores 597
Lagomorphs (Rabbits) and Caviomorphs (Chinchillas and Guinea Pigs) 597
Dental Disease and Malocclusion 597
Obesity 598
Gastrointestinal Stasis or Ileus 599
Urolithiasis 599
Critical Care Nutrition for Small Mammalian Companion Herbivores 600
Energy Calculations for Rabbits, Chinchillas, and Guinea Pigs 601
General Nutrition for Small Mammalian Carnivores 602
Ferrets 602
Digestive Physiology 602
Nutrition-Related Diseases of Small Mammalian Companion Carnivores 602
Ferrets and Considerations for Mink 602
Marine Food Sources: Hypovitaminosis E/Nutritional Steatitis, Thiamine Deficiency, and Salt Toxicity 602
Considerations for Mink 602
Nutrition-Related Diseases of Small Mammalian Carnivores 603
Ferrets 603
Obesity 603
Urolithiasis 603
Ferret Pancreatic Islet Beta-Cell Tumor (Insulinoma) 605
Inflammatory Bowel Disease 605
Critical Care Nutrition for Small Mammalian Companion Carnivores 606
Ferrets 606
References 606
Index 610